VCU Writes: A Student’s Guide to Research and Writing

Establishing significant thematic connections in content between two or more sources.

The ability to carefully examine something and make an interpretation of its nature

Reading a text more actively and not taking it at face-value. Critically reading a text includes defining unfamiliar vocabulary; questioning assumptions and purpose of the text as well as your own; identifying claims, supporting evidence and counterarguments. For more on this topic, see the Critical Reading page on this site.

A sophisticated analysis and evaluation of a text in order to form one’s judgement on a particular subject. For more on this topic, see the Critical Thinking page on this site.

The use of more than one mode of expression (visual, oral, etc.) in a composition. Multimodal compositions include picture books, text books, graphic novels, comics, posters, commercials, and most videos on YouTube. For more on this topic, see the Multimodality page on this site.

The ways in which we converse with others on subjects explored in higher education.

A type of composition that prioritizes a thesis and uses evidence and analysis in order to make an explicit case to persuade a particular audience. For more on this topic, see the Argument/Persuasive writing subhead on the Writing page of this site.

An abbreviated version of specific content within a text.

A set of ethical values and practices implemented and upheld in higher education. For more on this topic, see the Academic Integrity page on this site.

The vocal expression of content to convey meaning. For more on this topic, see the Oral Communication page on this site.

A sustained process of compiling pertinent and relevant information on a subject in order to establish an informed view. For more on this topic, see the Research page on this site.

The ability to  assess one’s own values and the social context of problems, to identify ethical issues in a variety of settings, to apply different approaches to ethical questions, and to consider the ramifications of potential courses of action. (“Ethical Reasoning.” AACU Ethical Reasoning Value Rubric. AACU.ORG http://www.aacu.org/value/rubrics/pdf/ethicalreasoning.pdf) For more on this topic, see the Ethical Reasoning page on this site.

Sources written for an educated, but not necessarily expert, audience. They seldom claim to present new knowledge; instead, they make knowledge available to non-experts. They often cite scholarly sources, but generally do not include a bibliography. Authors need not be scholars in the field; however, they engage in significant research and support their claims with reasons and evidence.  Examples can be found in publications such as: The New Yorker, The Atlantic, Harper’s, Psychology Today, Scientific America, Sunday New York Times Magazine.

Sources written by experts or scholars for experts and scholars in their own field. They have in some way been vetted by people with expertise in the field in which the author is writing. For example, a scholarly book may be published by a University Press or edited by a panel of peers. Scholarly articles often undergo the process of peer-review, in which experts in the field read and critique articles prior to their publication in a journal.  Note: not all articles in a scholarly journal are suitable—e.g., book reviews. Appropriate scholarly articles, for our purposes, document their sources.

First-hand texts, documents, reports, or accounts. They will differ depending on the subject or field of study. In the sciences they will be published findings on studies or experiments. In literature they will be novels, poems, etc.; in film or media studies they will be movies, TV shows, or other works to be analyzed. In other fields they can be historical documents or reports, interviews, autobiographies, letters, or any original piece of work. Note: In academics, we also sometimes use the term primary texts, which can be traditional primary source texts—documents, letters, etc.—but can also refer to specific cultural artifacts. For example, Barbie dolls, the Vietnam Memorial, or Facebook, all could be considered primary texts. The term primary text is most associated with semiotics (the study of signs). Again, these designations sometimes vary depending on the discipline, but in your FI courses your instructors will generally use the terms primary sources and primary texts interchangeably.

Interpretations, analyses, and evaluations of primary sources/texts. Generally, they are accounts written after the fact with the benefit of hindsight. Most substantive sources are secondary sources; scholarly sources can be secondary or primary.

General reference sources that often document their sources but are written for a wide audience. Encyclopedias—Wikipedia, for one—and general reference books for specific disciplines—e.g., The Concise Dictionary of Psychology—are examples of tertiary sources. Other examples include an organization’s website, a YouTube video, or infographics. Tertiary sources are not usually accepted in college-level papers or projects; always check with your professor.